Explain the difference between inarticulate and articulate brachiopods.

The estimated ATP yield from the oxidation of myristic acid is approximately 21 ATP molecules.

Myristic acid has 14 carbon atoms, so it goes through six rounds of β-oxidation, resulting in the production of six acetyl-CoA molecules, six NADH molecules, and six FADH₂ molecules.

Now, let's calculate the ATP yield from these metabolic steps:

Activation of myristic acid: Two ATP molecules are hydrolyzed, resulting in a net loss of two ATP.

Transport of myristoyl-CoA: One ATP molecule is consumed.

β-oxidation within the mitochondria:

Six rounds of β-oxidation produce six acetyl-CoA molecules.

Each acetyl-CoA molecule goes through the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), producing three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH₂ per acetyl-CoA.

Using the oxidative phosphorylation process, the ATP yield from each NADH molecule is approximately 2.5-3 ATP, while each FADH₂ molecule produces approximately 1.5-2 ATP.

Considering these factors, let's calculate the ATP yield from the oxidation of myristic acid:

ATP yield from NADH:

6 NADH × 2.5 ATP ≈ 15 ATP

ATP yield from FADH₂:

6 FADH₂ × 1.5 ATP ≈ 9 ATP

Net ATP production:

(15 ATP from NADH) + (9 ATP from FADH₂) - (2 ATP activation) - (1 ATP transport) ≈ 21 ATP

Therefore, the estimated ATP yield from the oxidation of myristic acid is approximately 21 ATP molecules.

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The genetic disease associated with hypercalcemia and issues on chromosome 7 is Williams Syndrome.

Williams Syndrome is a rare genetic disorder characterized by developmental delays, cardiovascular issues, and a unique personality profile, among other symptoms. It is caused by the deletion of about 26-28 genes from the long arm of chromosome 7, which includes the ELN gene responsible for elastin production, leading to hypercalcemia and other health problems.

A genetic disorder is an illness caused by changes in a person's DNA. These mutations? can be due to an error in DNA replication or due to environmental factors, such as cigarette smoke and exposure to radiation, which cause changes in the DNA sequence.

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Integrins are a family of transmembrane adhesion molecules that mediate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. The correct answer is D. Integrins.

Fibronectin is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein that is present in the extracellular matrix and serves as a ligand for several integrins. Therefore, an adhesion molecule that binds to fibronectin is most likely an integrin.

Integrins play a crucial role in cell adhesion, migration, and signaling, and are involved in many physiological and pathological processes, including wound healing, inflammation, and cancer metastasis.

Integrins are composed of alpha and beta subunits that form a heterodimeric complex. The extracellular domain of the integrin binds to specific ligands, such as fibronectin, while the intracellular domain interacts with the cytoskeleton and regulates cell signaling pathways.

In contrast, cadherins are calcium-dependent adhesion molecules that mediate cell-cell interactions, collagens are a family of extracellular matrix proteins that provide structural support to tissues, immunoglobulin superfamily molecules are involved in immune responses, and selectins mediate cell-cell interactions during inflammation and immune responses.

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The basic biological urge to eat when our body senses that we need food is b) hunger.Hunger is the basic biological urge to eat when the body senses that it needs food.

This sensation is triggered by a complex interplay of hormones, nerve signals, and other biological factors that work together to create the feeling of hunger. When the body needs food, it releases hormones such as ghrelin, which stimulates the hypothalamus in the brain to increase appetite and food-seeking behavior.

Hunger is also influenced by other factors, such as the time of day, stress, and social cues.

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The statement: Territorial behavior is costly in terms of time and energy allocated away from other activities is TRUE because individuals must actively defend their territory from intruders.

Territorial behavior is a costly behavior that requires time and energy to defend a particular area against competitors or intruders. By investing time and energy into territorial defense, individuals may be taking away resources from other important activities such as foraging or reproduction.

However, the costs associated with territorial behavior can be offset by the benefits of exclusive access to limited resources such as food or mates. Territorial behavior may also reduce the likelihood of direct physical confrontation with competitors, which can be even more costly in terms of energy and survival.

Territorial behavior represents a trade-off between costs and benefits, and its evolution depends on the relative fitness benefits of occupying and defending a territory compared to alternative strategies.

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When the fungus that causes athlete's foot infects other areas of the body, it can lead to various symptoms and complications. Athlete's foot, also known as tinea pedis, is caused by a group of fungi called dermatophytes.

These fungi thrive in warm, moist environments and can easily spread to other parts of the body through direct contact or contaminated surfaces.

Step 1: Infection begins. The fungus that causes athlete's foot may infect other areas of the body by either direct skin-to-skin contact with an infected area or indirectly through contact with contaminated surfaces, such as towels, shoes, or floors.

Step 2: Fungal growth. The fungus will start to grow and multiply on the new area of the body, causing a similar infection. Depending on the location, the infection may be referred to by different names, such as tinea corporis (ringworm on the body) or tinea cruris (jock itch in the groin area).

Step 3: Symptoms develop. The infected area may become itchy, red, and scaly, with a raised, circular border resembling a ring. The infected skin may also become cracked, blistered, or develop a secondary bacterial infection.

Step 4: Treatment is needed. Over-the-counter antifungal creams or prescribed oral antifungal medications can be used to treat the infection. It is essential to keep the affected area clean and dry to prevent the fungus from spreading further.

In conclusion, when the fungus that causes athlete's foot infects other areas of the body, it can lead to uncomfortable and potentially serious symptoms. Treatment is necessary to eliminate the infection and prevent further complications.

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Explanation:

The escalation ladder, also known as the "conflict escalation model," is a framework that describes the stages or levels of escalation that can occur in a conflict or dispute between individuals or groups. The general format of the escalation ladder is:

1. Stage 1: Latent Conflict - The first stage of conflict involves the presence of a disagreement or difference of opinion between individuals or groups. However, at this stage, the conflict has not yet escalated into a more serious situation.

2. Stage 2: Escalation - If the conflict is not resolved at the latent stage, it may escalate to the next level. In this stage, the individuals or groups involved may start to take actions that are more assertive, such as making demands, threats, or using aggressive language.

3. Stage 3: Stalemate - If the conflict continues to escalate, it may reach a stage where neither party is able to make progress towards their goals. At this point, both parties may become frustrated and begin to feel stuck in the conflict.

4. Stage 4: De-escalation - In this stage, the conflict begins to calm down. The parties involved may begin to negotiate, make concessions, or find other ways to resolve the conflict without resorting to more extreme measures.

5. Stage 5: Resolution - The final stage of the escalation ladder is the resolution stage. At this point, the conflict has been resolved, either through negotiation, compromise, or some other means. The parties involved may still have some lingering feelings of resentment or anger, but the conflict itself has been resolved.

It's important to note that the escalation ladder is a general framework and that conflicts can sometimes skip stages or cycle back to an earlier stage. Understanding the different stages of conflict escalation can be helpful in managing and resolving conflicts before they become more serious or destructive.

The basic mechanism of DNA repair involves three steps: recognition, excision, and resynthesis.

Recognition: In this step, the DNA damage is recognized by specific proteins that survey the DNA molecule for any abnormalities.

The most common DNA damage types that are recognized include thymine dimers, mismatched base pairs, and single-strand breaks.

Excision: Once the damage is recognized, the next step is to remove the damaged DNA segment. This is carried out by specialized enzymes that cleave the DNA backbone on both sides of the damaged site.

Depending on the type of damage, different enzymes may be involved in the excision process.

Resynthesis: After the damaged DNA segment is removed, the final step is to fill in the gap with a new DNA sequence.

This process is carried out by DNA polymerases, which use the complementary strand as a template to synthesize a new strand of DNA.

Once the resynthesis is complete, the DNA molecule is once again intact and can be replicated or transcribed as needed.

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Two mechanisms of speciation that lead to the development of separate species from a common ancestor are allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation.

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Staphylococcus epidermis is best described as an opportunistic pathogen.

Staphylococcus epidermis is a type of bacteria that is normally found on the skin as a part of the resident microbiota. It is generally harmless and can even provide some benefits to the host, such as preventing colonization by harmful pathogens. However, when there is a break in the tissue, such as a cut or wound, S. epidermis can invade deeper tissues and cause an infection. In such cases, it acts as an opportunistic pathogen, taking advantage of the compromised host defense to cause disease.

Although S. epidermis is a resident microbiota on the skin, it can be considered an opportunistic pathogen when it causes infections in situations where the host's defenses are weakened or compromised.

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The term that describes the location of the bifurcation of the carotid artery in the neck is the "carotid sinus." The carotid sinus is a dilation at the base of the internal carotid artery, where it bifurcates into the external and internal carotid arteries. This area is important for monitoring blood pressure and regulating heart rate through the baroreceptor reflex.

The carotid artery is a major blood vessel in the neck that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain, face, and neck. There are two carotid arteries in the neck, one on each side. The right and left carotid arteries originate from the aorta and pass through the neck to supply blood to the brain.

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We could expect to find less than 50% of reptile and amphibian species in Cuba if 90% of it's area becomes unsuitable for wildlife due to human activities.

The total area of the island is mentioned as 100,000 km² in Figure 1. Therefore, to determine the reptile as well as amphibian species in Cuba, we first need to calculate the area (in km²) that has become unsuitable for wildlife as:

100,000 x 90% = 90,000 km²

Now, we can subtract this value from the total area of the island as:

100,000 - 90,000 = 10,000 km²

Hence, only an area of 10,000 km² is suitable for wildlife since 90%, i.e., 90,000 km² of the area has become unsuitable for wildlife due to human activities.

Therefore, we could expect to find less than 50% of reptile and amphibian species in Cuba as is evident in Figure 1.

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Meatal stenosis is defined as the narrowing of the urethral opening to the outside of the body. Therefore, the correct answer is option C.

Meatal stenosis refers to a narrowing of the urethral opening to the outside of the body. This condition can occur as a result of inflammation or scarring, and may also be a complication of circumcision. Symptoms of meatal stenosis can include pain or discomfort during urination, frequent urination, and urinary tract infections. Treatment for meatal stenosis may involve dilation of the urethral opening or surgical correction, depending on the severity of the condition.

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The radiolucent small hole or opening found by the roots of mandibular premolars is called a "mental foramen."The mental foramen is an important landmark in dentistry as it houses the mental nerve and vessels, which provide sensation and blood supply to the lower lip and chin. During certain dental procedures, such as implant placement or inferior alveolar nerve blocks, it is important to avoid injuring the mental nerve and vessels as this can lead to significant postoperative complications. Knowledge of the location and anatomy of the mental foramen is therefore essential for dental professionals.

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C) "Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase" catalyzes the production of 6-phosphogluconate in the pentose phosphate pathway.

The pentose phosphate pathway is a metabolic pathway that generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate. One of the key steps in this pathway is the conversion of glucose 6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconate. This conversion is catalyzed by the enzyme phosphogluconate dehydrogenase.

The enzyme glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase is involved in an earlier step of the pathway and catalyzes the conversion of glucose 6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone. 6-Phosphogluconolactonase catalyzes the hydrolysis of 6-phosphogluconolactone to produce 6-phosphogluconate. Glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is not directly involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.

Option C is answer.

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Damage to the sacral spinal cord can affect both bladder contraction and internal urethral sphincter relaxation, leading to overflow incontinence.

The sacral spinal cord plays a crucial role in controlling the lower urinary tract, including bladder and sphincter functions. It contains neurons that regulate the detrusor muscle, responsible for bladder contraction, and the internal urethral sphincter, which maintains urinary continence.

Injuries or diseases affecting the sacral spinal cord can disrupt the normal functioning of these neurons, leading to various types of urinary dysfunction. Overflow incontinence is one such condition where the bladder becomes overly full and cannot contract effectively to expel urine. This can result from impaired communication between the brain and the sacral spinal cord or direct damage to the sacral nerves.

When the internal urethral sphincter fails to relax properly, it further complicates the problem by preventing the bladder from emptying completely. This leads to a continuous leakage of urine, known as overflow incontinence. Individuals with sacral spinal cord damage may experience difficulty in initiating urination, weak urine flow, and frequent or urgent need to urinate.

Treatment options for overflow incontinence due to sacral spinal cord damage include medications to improve bladder and sphincter function, intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder, and surgical interventions in severe cases. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate management of this condition.

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In order to form 3 peptide bonds, 3 molecules of water are produced. This is because each peptide bond formation involves the removal of one molecule of water as the amino acids are linked together through a condensation reaction. Therefore, the number of peptide bonds formed is directly proportional to the number of water molecules produced.

Peptide bonds are covalent bonds that develop during the synthesis of proteins between the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid and the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid. A covalent link between the carbon atom of the carboxyl group and the nitrogen atom of the amino group is created as a result of the dehydration synthesis process, which removes a molecule of water from the amino acids. The development of proteins, which are made up of lengthy chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, depends on peptide bonds. These bonds control the three-dimensional structure and biological activity of proteins. Additionally crucial for the creation of other biomolecules including enzymes, hormones.

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The function of lateral premotor region and the medial premotor region can be characterized as the lateral premotor region focuses on externally guided movements, while the medial premotor region/SMA is more involved in internally generated movements and complex motor sequences.

The lateral premotor region and the medial premotor region, also known as the supplementary motor area (SMA), are regions of the brain involved in motor planning and execution.

While they share similarities in motor control, they can be characterized by their specific functions as follows:

Lateral Premotor Region:

The lateral premotor region is primarily associated with the planning and execution of externally guided movements.

It plays a role in selecting and coordinating movements based on sensory information from the environment.

This region is involved in tasks that require precise control of limb movements and manipulation of objects in response to external cues.

Medial Premotor Region (SMA):

The medial premotor region or supplementary motor area (SMA) is more involved in internally generated or self-initiated movements.

It is responsible for the planning and execution of complex sequential movements, such as those involved in coordinated motor sequences and motor learning.

The SMA is also associated with the preparation and initiation of movements that occur in the absence of external cues or in response to internal cues or intentions.

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Answer:

Bacteria are capable of developing antibiotic resistance through mutation and selection.

Explanation:

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The belief that one is Abraham Lincoln is an example of a delusion, which is a common symptom of schizophrenia.

A delusion is a fixed, false belief that is not based in reality and is not affected by logical reasoning or evidence to the contrary. In the case of schizophrenia, delusions can take many forms, such as believing that one is someone else (like Abraham Lincoln), that one has special powers or abilities, or that one is being persecuted or spied upon.

Delusions can be distressing and can interfere with a person's ability to function in daily life. They are often accompanied by other symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations, disordered thinking, and unusual behavior.

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The only widely accepted indication for aspirin use in febrile children due to the risk of Reye syndrome is for treating Kawasaki disease.

Kawasaki disease is a rare childhood illness that affects blood vessels, causing inflammation and fever. Aspirin is used in this case to reduce inflammation and decrease the risk of coronary artery aneurysms, a serious complication of the disease. However, in most other febrile conditions, aspirin should be avoided in children under the age of 16 because it can increase the risk of developing Reye syndrome, a rare but severe condition that causes swelling in the liver and brain.

Reye syndrome is associated with the use of aspirin or aspirin-containing products during viral infections, such as the flu or chickenpox. Instead of aspirin, other fever-reducing medications like acetaminophen (paracetamol) or ibuprofen can be used safely in children to manage fever and discomfort. Overall, it is crucial to be cautious with aspirin use in febrile children and consider alternatives to minimize the risk of Reye syndrome. The only widely accepted indication for aspirin use in febrile children is for treating Kawasaki disease due to the risk of Reye syndrome.

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The unique epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule that allow for the final stage of filtration are called podocytes.

Podocytes are specialized cells with foot-like processes called pedicels that interdigitate with one another, forming filtration slits. These slits are bridged by a thin diaphragm, which serves as a final barrier to prevent the passage of large macromolecules like proteins from entering the Bowman's capsule. Podocytes play a crucial role in maintaining the glomerular filtration barrier, as they work together with the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) and endothelial cells of glomerular capillaries. This three-layered structure, consisting of the endothelial cells, the GBM, and the podocyte filtration slits, selectively filters blood plasma components based on their size and charge.

The unique structure and function of podocytes make them essential for the final stage of filtration in Bowman's capsule. They prevent the loss of vital plasma proteins, such as albumin, into the urinary filtrate while allowing smaller molecules like water, ions, and metabolic waste products to pass through, eventually forming urine. Any dysfunction of podocytes can lead to kidney diseases, such as nephrotic syndrome or focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, emphasizing their critical role in maintaining proper kidney function. So therefore podocytes is the unique epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule that allow for the final stage of filtration.

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Mylohyoid line is a Dense radiopaque band of bone that looks like an extension of the internal oblique ridge.

The Mylohyoid line is located on the inner surface of the mandible and serves as the attachment site for the Mylohyoid muscle, which is an essential component of the oral cavity's floor.

This muscle plays a crucial role in various oral functions, including swallowing and speech.

The radiopaque nature of the Mylohyoid line makes it visible in dental X-rays, allowing dental professionals to identify and assess the health of this region.

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Intraperitoneal organs do indeed have a serosa.

Intraperitoneal organs are organs that are located within the peritoneal cavity, which is the space in the abdomen that is lined by the peritoneum, a serous membrane. These organs are completely surrounded by the peritoneum and are suspended within the abdominal cavity by mesenteries, which are folds of the peritoneum that provide support and contain blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels.

The serosa is the outermost layer of the intraperitoneal organs and is made up of a layer of mesothelial cells and connective tissue. It is a double-layered membrane that provides lubrication, reducing friction between the organs and the body wall. Examples of intraperitoneal organs that have a serosa include the stomach, liver, spleen, and small intestine.

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The observable traits such as the color of eyes, size of ear lobes, and height are referred to as the phenotype of an individual. The genetic makeup of the progeny also known as the genotype decides the phenotypes. The phenotypes of progeny depend on environmental factors also.

The phenotypes of the Daphnia change due to chemical cues which directly affect the gene expression of the gene expression. Daphina's formative changes can not alone decide the modification. The higher width and crest sizes can not happen in a predator-free environment.

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The statement given "Plastics are found in filter feeders like bivalves but not in organisms higher in the food web." is false because plastics can be found in both filter feeders like bivalves and organisms higher in the food web.

Plastics are a widespread environmental pollutant that can accumulate in various organisms. While filter feeders like bivalves, such as mussels and clams, are known to ingest microplastics and other plastic particles from their surrounding water, plastics can also be found in organisms higher in the food web. As plastics break down into smaller particles, they can be ingested by smaller organisms, which are then consumed by larger organisms.

This process is known as bioaccumulation, where plastics can accumulate and be transferred through the food chain. Thus, plastics can be present in a range of organisms at different levels in the food web, including those higher up in the chain.

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Fish Lake is the body of water close to the north of Bear Paw Lake and Frog Lake. Between Bear Paw Lake to the west and Frog Lake to the east, in Alberta, Canada's Rocky Mountains, lies a tiny lake called Fish Lake.

Fish Lake is renowned for its crystal-clear waters, large population of trout, and picturesque views of the neighbouring mountains. The lake is bordered by forested areas and rough terrain, making it a well-liked spot for camping, boating, and fishing.  

Bear Paw Lake is entirely enclosed and has no surface drainage. Because of this, predatory fish are unable to easily access the lake. Frog Lake, on the other hand, is linked to the water supply via a little stream.

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The Multipurpose movement abilities are crucial for animals to survive in their respective habitats. These abilities range from simple movements, such as the amoeboid movement of protozoa, to complex movements, such as primate locomotion.

The Amoeboid movement Protozoa, such as amoebas, move using pseudopodia, which are temporary extensions of their cytoplasm. This movement allows them to feed and avoid predators. Flagellar movement Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, move using flagella, which are long, whip-like structures. This movement allows them to swim towards food and avoid toxins. Ciliary movement Organisms, such as paramecia, move using cilia, which are hair-like projections. This movement allows them to move towards food and avoid predators. Muscular movement Invertebrates, such as insects, move using muscles attached to their exoskeleton.  This movement allows them to walk, crawl, swim, and climb. Bipedalism Primates, such as humans, move using their two legs. This movement allows them to walk, run, jump, and climb. Overall, these multipurpose movement abilities allow animals to perform a variety of tasks, such as finding food, avoiding predators, and traveling long distances.

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The embryologic tissue layer that gives rise to the nervous system is called the ectoderm. During embryonic development, the ectoderm gives rise to a variety of tissues, including the epidermis, hair, nails, and the nervous system.

The formation of the nervous system from the ectoderm involves a complex series of events, including the formation of a neural plate, which eventually gives rise to the neural tube. The neural tube is the precursor to the brain and spinal cord, and it is the central component of the nervous system. The cells that make up the nervous system are specialized and have unique properties that allow them to transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body. The development of the nervous system is critical for normal function and is essential for life. Overall, the ectoderm is a crucial tissue layer that plays a vital role in the formation of the nervous system and other important tissues in the body.

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The amino acids that can be phosphorylated by protein kinases as part of the signal transduction process in eukaryotic cells are (b) serine, (c) threonine, and (d) tyrosine.

PTKs, or protein kinases, are enzymes that use ATP as the source of phosphate to phosphorylate certain amino acids. The amino acids (b) serine, (c) threonine, and (d) tyrosine can be phosphorylated by protein kinases as part of the signal transduction process in eukaryotic cells because, these amino acids have hydroxyl groups in their side chains that can accept a phosphate group from ATP, allowing them to be phosphorylated by protein kinases in signaling pathways. Tryptophan, aspartate, and glutamine are not typically phosphorylated by protein kinases.

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