How does CAH affect internal ducts, external genitalia, and
brains of XX individuals?

The condition you are describing is known as Glossitis. Glossitis is the inflammation of the tongue, which can cause it to become swollen, red, and have a smooth or granular appearance. Loss of papilla (the small bumps on the tongue) may also occur. This condition can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, allergic reactions, vitamin deficiencies, and autoimmune disorders.

Treatment for glossitis typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the inflammation, and may include medications, dietary changes, and other interventions. It is important to see a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

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The green truck has the greatest force of gravity acting on it because it has the highest number of boxes loaded on it.

The relationship between mass and the force of gravity acting on an object is given in the formula below:

Force of gravity = mass * acceleration due to gravity

The acceleration due to gravity is a constant, hence the force of gravity acting on an object increases with and increase in the mass of the object.

The mass of the boxes on the green truck is greatest since it has the highest number of boxes on it.

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1. Exponential growth is characterized by a constant rate of growth.

2. The key difference between exponential and logistic growth is the rate of growth.

3. The principles of evolution include natural selection, genetic variation, gene flow, and genetic drift.

1.  It is a rapid increase that is followed by a gradual slow down. Logistic growth follows an S-shaped curve with a period of slow growth followed by rapid growth, which is then followed by a decrease in population size as resources become scarce.

2.  Exponential growth is rapid and continuous, whereas logistic growth follows a slower pattern with periods of rapid growth. Examples of exponential growth include bacteria populations and human populations.

Examples of logistic growth include prey-predator populations, fish populations, and invasive species populations.

3. Natural selection occurs when some individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce due to their physical or behavioral characteristics. Genetic variation is the variation in genetic makeup of a population.

Gene flow is the movement of genes from one population to another.

Finally, genetic drift is the random change in the gene frequencies of a population. Examples of these principles can be seen in any animal or plant species.

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The exponential function for bacterial growth is N(t) = N₀e^(rt),

The exponential function is N(t) = N₀e^(rt);

N(t) is the number of bacteria at time t

N₀ is the initial number of bacteria

e is the mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.718

r is the growth rate

t is time.

This formula describes the exponential increase in the number of bacteria over time, assuming unlimited resources for growth. The growth rate, r, is a constant that depends on the specific bacteria and growth conditions. This formula is used in microbiology and related fields to model and predict bacterial growth.

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Type I diabetes is a disease that affects a person's pancreas. The question at hand is which biotherapeutic category could be used to treat type I diabetes? B. Recombinant protein is the biotherapeutic category that could be used to treat type I Diabetes.

A type of biotherapy that could be used to treat type I diabetes is recombinant protein. A protein made through genetic engineering is called a "recombinant protein."

It can be the product of a cloned gene that is being expressed in a foreign host cell, or it can be a protein that has been changed by adding a specific DNA sequence from the genome of another organism.

Diabetes type 1 is also called diabetes that needs insulin. This kind of diabetes happens when your immune system attacks and kills the cells in your pancreas that make insulin.

Insulin is a hormone that controls how much sugar is in your blood. Type 1 diabetes is treated with insulin therapy. It helps you keep your blood sugar under control.

Therefore, The question at hand is which biotherapeutic category could be used to treat type I diabetes? B. Recombinant protein

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a. The value of X2  is 0.12

b. Based on the x2 value calculated, the data does not support the hypothesis of 3:1 ratio for the F2 progeny of a Mendelian cross with complete dominance.

c. In light of the outcome of this x2 test, the researcher should look into why the eggs died and what other environmental conditions might have caused the deviation from the expected 3:1 F2 ratio.

Based on the correct 3:1 F2 ratio, the x2 value for this data would be calculated as follows:

Expected: (3 x 44)/4 = 33

Observed: 35

x2 = ((35-33)^2)/33 = 4/33 = 0.12



They should consider repeating the experiment to see if the results match the expected ratio more closely.

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ABO blood typing in humans is determined by three different alleles: IA, IB, and i. The IA allele codes for the A-type blood antigen, while the IB allele codes for the B-type blood antigen. The i allele does not produce either A or B antigens and is responsible for the O blood type.

When two individuals with IAIA and IBIB genotypes mate, all of their offspring will inherit one IA allele from one parent and one IB allele from the other parent. As a result, all of their offspring will have the IAIB genotype and will express both A and B antigens, resulting in the AB phenotype.

When two individuals with IAIA and IBi genotypes mate, their offspring will inherit either an IA or an i allele from the IAIA parent and either an IB or an i allele from the IBi parent. This results in 50% of the offspring having the IAi genotype and expressing the A antigen, while the other 50% will have the IBi genotype and express the B antigen.

When two individuals with IAIA and ii genotypes mate, all of their offspring will inherit an IA allele from the IAIA parent and an i allele from the ii parent. This results in all of their offspring having the IAi genotype and expressing the A antigen.

When two individuals with IBIB and ii genotypes mate, all of their offspring will inherit an IB allele from the IBIB parent and an i allele from the ii parent. This results in all of their offspring having the IBi genotype and expressing the B antigen.

When two individuals with IAi and IBi genotypes mate, their offspring have a 25% chance of inheriting an IA allele and an IB allele, resulting in the IAIB genotype and the AB phenotype. There is also a 25% chance of inheriting an IA allele and an i allele, resulting in the IAi genotype and the A phenotype. Another 25% chance of inheriting an IB allele and an i allele, resulting in the IBi genotype and the B phenotype. Finally, there is a 25% chance of inheriting two i alleles, resulting in the ii genotype and the O phenotype.

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Organisms with unique structures, such as capsules, endospores, and mycolic acids, can be found among many different species which can be identified using staining techniques like Gram staining.

For example, the bacterium Bacillus subtilis is known for its endospore-forming ability, while Mycobacterium tuberculosis has a thick layer of mycolic acids in its cell wall. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an example of a bacterium with a thick, gelatinous capsule.

The Gram stain is a differential stain used to differentiate between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This is done by staining the cell wall of the bacterium with crystal violet, followed by a counterstain with safranin. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet, while Gram-negative bacteria take on the pinkish color of the safranin.

In addition to the Gram stain, other differential stains exist, such as the acid-fast stain and the endospore stain. The acid-fast stain, also known as the Ziehl-Neelsen stain, is used to identify organisms with a high degree of acid-fastness in their cell wall, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The endospore stain is used to identify bacteria that produce endospores, such as Bacillus subtilis.

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Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. There are several problems associated with GMOs, including the potential for negative impacts on the environment and human health. One of the main concerns with GMOs is their potential to create unintended consequences for the environment.

For example, genetically modified crops can crossbreed with wild relatives, leading to the creation of new, potentially invasive species. There are also concerns about the potential for GMOs to contribute to the decline of biodiversity, as they can outcompete and displace native species. Another concern with GMOs is their potential impact on human health. While there is no evidence to suggest that GMOs are inherently unsafe, there is a lack of long-term studies on their safety.

Additionally, some people are concerned about the potential for GMOs to contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance, as some genetically modified crops contain genes for antibiotic resistance.

The main reasons for the development and use of GMOs are to increase crop yields and to create crops that are resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors. The agricultural industry is the main contributor to the use of GMOs, with genetically modified crops being used in a variety of products, including corn, soybeans, and cotton.

There are several sustainable alternatives to GMOs, including organic farming methods, the use of crop rotation and cover crops, and the use of natural pest control methods. Additionally, consumers can choose to buy products that are labeled as non-GMO or organic, in order to support sustainable farming practices.

In conclusion, while GMOs have the potential to increase crop yields and create crops that are resistant to pests and diseases, there are also concerns about their potential impact on the environment and human health. There are several sustainable alternatives to GMOs, including organic farming methods and the use of natural pest control methods.

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Patients with a history of fever, warm extremities, and sites of infection are most likely to have a type of shock called septic shock.

Septic shock is a serious condition that occurs when an infection leads to dangerously low blood pressure and organ dysfunction. This type of shock is most commonly caused by bacterial infections, but can also be caused by fungal or viral infections.
Symptoms of septic shock may include:
- Fever
- Warm extremities
- Rapid heart rate
- Rapid breathing
- Confusion or disorientation
- Low blood pressure
- Decreased urine output
- Sites of infection, such as wounds or abscesses
It is important to seek medical treatment immediately if you suspect that you or a loved one may be experiencing septic shock, as it can be life-threatening without prompt treatment. Treatment may include antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and other supportive care.

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Using Calcium chloride instead of Ca gluconate will enhance the solubility of calcium and phosphorus in a parenteral nutrition formulation and decrease the chance for precipitation. Option d.

Calcium chloride has a higher solubility than calcium gluconate, which means that it will dissolve more easily in the formulation and will be less likely to precipitate out of solution. This is important because precipitation can cause blockages in the IV line and can also lead to other complications.

In contrast, increasing the concentration of lipid emulsion, increasing the formulation temperature, and increasing the amino acid concentration will not have a significant effect on the solubility of calcium and phosphorus.

Therefore, the best option to enhance the solubility of these two minerals and decrease the chance for precipitation is to use calcium chloride instead of calcium gluconate. Option d.

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The general principle behind confocal microscopy is that it uses a pinhole to eliminate out-of-focus light, which results in a clearer and sharper image. In contrast, 2-photon microscopy uses longer wavelength lasers to excite fluorophores, resulting in less photobleaching and less damage to the sample.

The main advantage of using 2-photon microscopy is that it allows for deeper imaging within a sample, as the longer wavelength lasers can penetrate deeper into the tissue. Additionally, 2-photon microscopy has less photobleaching and less damage to the sample, which is important for live cell imaging.

Overall, 2-photon microscopy is a powerful tool for studying biological systems and can provide valuable insights into the structure and function of cells and tissues.

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True. Results can be reliable without being valid.

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement or research finding over time and across different observers or instruments. A measurement is considered reliable if it yields consistent results when repeated multiple times.

Validity, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which a measurement or research finding measures what it is intended to measure. A measurement is considered valid if it accurately measures the construct it is intended to measure.

Therefore, it is possible for a measurement or research finding to be reliable but not valid. For example, if a thermometer consistently reads 2 degrees higher than the actual temperature, it is reliable (consistent), but not valid (not measuring the actual temperature accurately).

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The complete question is below:

True or false, results can be reliable without being valid​.

Part A: 42% of the population is a carrier (heterozygous individuals).

a. The frequency of the recessive allele in the population is q = 0.3

b. To find the frequency of the dominant allele is p = 0.7

c. p^2 = frequency of homozygous dominant individuals = (0.7)^2 = 0.49 or 49%

d. 2pq = frequency of heterozygous individuals = 2(0.7)(0.3) = 0.42 or 42%

e. q^2 = frequency of homozygous recessive individuals = (0.3)^2 = 0.09 or 9%

Part B:

a. Frequency of the dominant allele: Since there are only two alleles, the frequency of the dominant allele B is equal to 1 - frequency of recessive allele b, which is approximately 0.41.

b. Frequency of the recessive allele: As calculated above, the frequency of the recessive allele b is approximately 0.59.

c.  the percentage of individuals who are homozygous dominant is 7.6%.

d. the percentage of individuals who are homozygous recessive is 35%.

e. the percentage of individuals who are heterozygous is 58.5%.

The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to determine the frequency of alleles in a population. The equation is: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

where p is the frequency of the dominant allele and q is the frequency of the recessive allele.

Part A;

In this case, we know that q^2 represents the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals (ss) who exhibit signs and symptoms of sickle-cell anemia. We are given that this frequency is 0.09, or 9%.

So we can set up the equation as follows:

q^2 = 0.09

Taking the square root of both sides gives us:

q = 0.3

This represents the frequency of the recessive allele in the population.

To find the frequency of the dominant allele, we can use the fact that p + q = 1. So:

p + 0.3 = 1

p = 0.7

This represents the frequency of the dominant allele in the population.

Part B.

% homozygous dominant: To calculate the percentage of individuals who are homozygous dominant (BB), we can use the Hardy-Weinberg equation: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, where p is the frequency of the dominant allele (B) and q is the frequency of the recessive allele (b). Since we know that q^2 = 0.35, we can solve for p^2 and get approximately 0.076.

% heterozygous: To calculate the percentage of individuals who are heterozygous (Bb), we can use the same Hardy-Weinberg equation: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1. We already know p^2 and q^2, so we can solve for 2pq and get approximately 0.585.

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In order to complete the Discussion-Based Assessment for Module 04: Cycles and Conservation, my instructor and I will have a conversation about the material I have learned.

Conversation is an interactive exchange of ideas, opinions, and information between two or more people. It involves the sharing of thoughts, feelings, and ideas in order to develop a mutual understanding. Conversation is a powerful tool for building relationships, expressing emotions, and fostering understanding between people.

During this conversation, I will need to demonstrate my understanding of the topics covered in this module. To make sure I am fully prepared for this assessment, I should look over the grading rubric so I am familiar with the criteria my instructor will use to grade me. This will help me better understand how to answer the questions my instructor may ask. Before my conversation with my instructor, I should think about any questions I still have about the material in this module. This conversation is a great opportunity to ask my instructor any questions I may still have, which can help me better understand the material and be more successful on the assessment.

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Gram positive bacteria are stained purple and gram negative bacteria are stained pink or red during the gram stain process.

When using a gram stain, the gram positive bacteria are stained a purple color. This is because gram positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer in their cell walls, which allows them to retain the crystal violet dye used in the gram stain process.

On the other hand, gram negative bacteria are stained a pink or red color. This is because they have a thinner peptidoglycan layer and cannot retain the crystal violet dye. Instead, they are stained with a counterstain called safranin, which gives them their pink or red color.

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The frequency of heterozygotes (Aa or 2pq) in a population in which the frequency of all dominant phenotypes (p2 +2pq) is 0.25 and the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is 0.125.

From the given data on PTC tasters and Non-Tasters, the allele frequencies of T and t can be calculated as follows: T= 0.5 and t= 0.5. The expected genotype frequencies are TT = 0.25, Tt = 0.5 and tt = 0.25. The phenotype frequencies are Non-Taster = 0.375 and Taster = 0.625 and are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

From the data given for the frequencies of each of three genotypes at 5 separate loci, A through E, it can be determined that loci A, B, C, D, and E are all polymorphic, as they all have more than one allele. The allele frequencies at each locus are: A: 0.6, B: 0.03, C: 0.5, D: 0.45, and E: 0.38. This suggests that some mechanisms of evolution are acting at some loci but not others, as different allele frequencies are observed.

For the red oaks population, the observed genotype frequencies are BB = 0.2025, Bb = 0.45, and bb = 0.3475. The expected genotype frequencies are BB = 0.2025, Bb = 0.45, and bb = 0.3475, which is the same as the observed genotype frequencies. This indicates that the population is at Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.

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The average drop volume would be approximately 0.0556 mL (1.00 mL/18 drops).

To calculate the average drop volume, we divide the total volume (1.00 mL) by the number of drops (18). In this case, we get 0.0556 mL/drop. It's important to note that the actual volume of each drop may vary depending on factors such as the size of the dropper and the viscosity of the liquid. Therefore, this value represents an approximation based on the given data.

Additionally, it's worth noting that using a graduated cylinder to measure small volumes like drops may not be the most precise method. More accurate results can be obtained using specialized instruments like a micropipette or a burette.

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Explanation:

GG - Green

Gg - Green

gg - Yellow

PP - Purple

Pp - purple

pp - white

Tall - TT/Tt

short - tt

smooth - SS/Ss

wrinked - ss

Niacin requirements are expressed in "NE" which refers to Niacin Equivalents. It's used to take into account the content of tryptophan, which can be converted to niacin. Therefore, the correct answer is the last option.

Niacin equivalents (NE) are a unit of measurement used to quantify the amount of niacin and tryptophan in a food or supplement. Niacin is a B vitamin that is essential for many metabolic processes in the body. Tryptophan is an amino acid that can be converted into niacin in the body.

One niacin equivalent is equal to 1 milligram of niacin or 60 milligrams of tryptophan. This unit of measurement is used to help determine the recommended daily intake of niacin for individuals. The recommended daily intake of niacin for adults is 14-16 niacin equivalents per day.

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There are several body systems that can be affected by diseases or pathologies which include the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system, and immune system.

The specific effects on each of these systems will depend on the particular disease or respiratory system that is present.

For example, if someone is suffering from a respiratory illness like pneumonia, their respiratory system will be affected. They may have difficulty breathing, chest pain, and a cough. The immune system will also be affected as it works to fight off the infection.

If someone has a cardiovascular disease like coronary artery disease, their cardiovascular system will be affected. They may experience chest pain, shortness of breath, and an increased risk of heart attack or stroke. The nervous system may also be affected, as the brain may not receive enough oxygen-rich blood.

Similarly, if someone has a digestive disorder like Crohn's disease, their digestive system will be affected. They may experience abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss. The immune system may also be affected, as it plays a role in the inflammation associated with Crohn's disease.

Overall, the specific body systems and effects will depend on the particular disease or pathology present. It is important to understand these effects in order to properly diagnose and treat the condition.

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The limitations of negative, spore, and capsule staining are that they are less sensitive than other methods, can take a long time to complete, and do not identify all bacterial species.

Alternative or supplementary methods include:

References:

[1] Kazal, J. A., and L. W. Dobos. "Rapid Identification of Bacterial Pathogens." Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 10, no. 2, 1997, pp. 212–237., doi:10.1128/cmr.10.2.212.

[2] Baker, M. P., et al. "Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH) in Diagnostic Bacteriology." Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 75, no. 4, 2013, pp. 327–334., doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.06.014.

[3] Jiang, P., et al. "Immunofluorescence Assay for Rapid Identification of Bacterial Species in Clinical Samples." BMC Microbiology, vol. 17, no. 1, 2017, p. 218., doi:10.1186/s12866-017-1090-z.

[4] Stagno, L., et al. "Comparison of Culture, 16s rRNA PCR, and PCR for 16 Gene Fragments for Diagnosis of Bacterial Pathogens from Clinical Specimens." Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 54, no. 7, 2016, pp. 1763–1770., doi:10.1128/jcm.00962-16.

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He must consider customer preferences, market demand, and production costs to decide which two flavors he wants to go ahead with. First, we need to review customer feedback and research market demand for each of the three flavors. This helps us understand her two flavors that are most in demand and most popular with customers. Next, we need to estimate the cost of producing each flavor. This allows him to identify two flavors that have the lowest production costs and can be produced more efficiently and cheaply. Finally, you have to make a decision based on the data you collect. This allows him with the highest customer demand and the lowest production costs to choose two flavors, thus maximizing his profit.

Customer preferences, market demand, and production costs are three crucial factors that businesses must consider when making strategic decisions about their products or services. By taking into account customer preferences, market demand, and production costs, businesses can make informed decisions about their products and services, leading to increased customer satisfaction and profitability.

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If cell membranes weren't selectively permeable to compounds like sugars and amino acids, the nutrients that the cell brings in would not be regulated properly. This means that there would be an imbalance of nutrients inside and outside of the cell, which could lead to a number of problems.

First, the cell would not be able to maintain its internal environment, which is crucial for its survival. Without selective permeability, the cell would be unable to regulate the amount of nutrients it takes in, which could lead to an excess or deficiency of certain nutrients.
Second, the cell would not be able to carry out its normal functions, such as metabolism and energy production. This is because the cell relies on the proper balance of nutrients to carry out these processes.
Lastly, the cell would be unable to communicate with other cells, which is important for coordinating cellular activities and responding to signals from the environment.

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The first step to addressing Shipping Fever would be to identify the causative agent of the disease and establish causation. This would help me to identify a causative agent for Shipping Fever.

To do this, I would collect samples of the affected cattle and their environment and analyze them to identify the microbes present. I would then look at the distribution of the microbes among the affected and unaffected cows, to identify a microbial agent that is overrepresented among the affected cattle.

The next step is to identify the major virulence factor of the organism. To do this, I would use the technique of "inverse molecular genetics", which involves inactivating the genes in a microbe and then testing for a decrease in virulence. This would help to identify which microbial factors are most important in the pathogenesis of Shipping Fever.

The next step is to intervene and prevent future infections. To do this, I would use a combination of vaccination and management practices. Vaccination would be used to introduce antibodies into the affected cattle, while management practices would focus on reducing stress on the cattle, which can increase their susceptibility to disease.

Finally, the intervention would target the step in disease pathogenesis that is responsible for causing the disease. This could be done through vaccination, which is effective at preventing the microbe from replicating and entering the host. Additionally, management practices could be implemented to reduce stress on the cattle, which can reduce the severity of the disease.

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The kind of mutation that occurred is: a point mutation resulting in a missense mutation.  

Point mutation refers to a type of mutation that affects a single nucleotide base in a DNA chain. It may include substitution, deletion, or addition of a single base pair. A silent mutation occurs when a point mutation occurs in which the new codon codes for the same amino acid as the original codon.

When the new codon codes for a different amino acid, a missense mutation occurs. When the new codon becomes a stop codon, resulting in premature termination of the protein, a nonsense mutation occurs. In the given scenario, a point mutation occurred that resulted in a missense mutation. This is due to the change of a single nucleotide in gene Y.

Protein Y was initially encoded by gene Y, which had the sequence Met-Pro-Leu-Tyr. However, due to the single nucleotide change in gene Y, the sequence of Protein Y changed to Met-Lys-Leu-Tyr. Therefore, it can be concluded that the mutation that occurred was a point mutation that resulted in a missense mutation.

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A hypothetical scenario is been used since  Exercise 1 is not given.

1. Using the field of view calculated in Exercise 1 for the high power lens, each of the cells that are visible in the high power lens view of the "Onion Root Tip slide in Photo 11 are approximately 0.05 mm across.

2. The most interesting detail visible for the onion root tip is the presence of mitotic cells in different stages of cell division, as observed in Data Table 5. The most interesting detail visible for the fruit fly is the observation of distinct body segments and appendages, as observed in Data Table 6.

Exercise 2 is a part of a biology lab or activity involving the observation of cells and organisms through a microscope.

Therefore, Question 2 asks the student to describe the most interesting detail that was visible for the onion root tip and the fruit fly, and use the results in Data Tables 5 and 6 to support their answer. This requires the student to carefully examine and analyze the data collected in the lab, and use it to draw conclusions about the observations made through the microscope.

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The electron transport chain is when excited electrons lose their energy in a series of reactions that capture that energy necessary to "keep life living."

This process occurs in the mitochondria of cells and is a crucial part of cellular respiration, as it generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the energy currency of the cell. The electron transport chain is the final step in the process of converting the energy stored in food molecules into usable energy for the cell.

The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons through a membrane within the mitochondria of cells. The net result of this process is the production of energy in the form of ATP, which can then be used to power various cellular activities. The electron transport chain begins with the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 molecules, which then donate electrons to a series of electron carriers.

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Just after eating a high carbohydrate (sugar) meal, the amount

of insulin will decrease.

After consuming a high carbohydrate meal, the body responds by releasing insulin from the pancreas, which helps to move glucose from the bloodstream into cells for energy or storage. As a result, the amount of insulin in the bloodstream increases, leading to a decrease in blood glucose levels. Conversely, glucagon and adrenaline are hormones that are released in response to low blood sugar levels and are involved in increasing blood glucose levels by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver and muscles. Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that is stored in the liver and muscles and broken down into glucose when needed for energy.

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A  trait that can be inherited by future generations

Evolution is the process by which populations of living organisms change over time through the gradual accumulation of small genetic changes. These changes can occur through a variety of mechanisms, including mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Over many generations, these changes can lead to the development of new species from existing ones, as well as to the extinction of other species.

Evolution is driven by natural selection, which is the process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population based on their ability to increase or decrease an individual's chances of survival and reproduction.

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