single eruption that occurs in a linear pattern through an extremely elongated vent is:
fissure eruption

Particle motion produced by a compressional wave can be modeled by a simple harmonic motion, in which particles move back and forth in the direction of wave propagation.

The motion of particles is parallel to the direction of wave propagation, which means that they experience compressions and rarefactions as the wave passes through them. During the compression phase, particles are pushed closer together, resulting in an increase in pressure, while during the rarefaction phase, particles move apart, resulting in a decrease in pressure.

This motion can be represented by a sine wave, with the amplitude of the wave representing the displacement of particles and the wavelength  representing the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions. The frequency of the wave is related to the number of oscillations per unit time, which determines the pitch of the sound produced by the wave.

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The primary observable effect of the slow precession of Earth's rotational axis is the gradual shift in the location of the celestial poles and the corresponding changes in the positions of the stars in the sky over long periods of time.

This slow precession is caused by the gravitational interactions between the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun, and results in a gradual wobbling motion of the rotational axis that takes approximately 26,000 years to complete a full cycle.

Thus, the primary observable effect of the slow precession of Earth's rotational axis is the gradual shift in the position of celestial objects, such as stars and constellations, in the night sky. This change is primarily noticeable over long periods of time (thousands of years) and affects the position of the celestial poles and the equinoxes.

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Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and oxygen atoms in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO2.

It is the second most abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. Quartz is hard and resistant to weathering, making it a common component of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and conglomerate.

It is also found in igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss, and schist. Due to its durability and beauty, quartz is widely used in various industries such as construction, jewelry making, and electronics.

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The correct option for the above question is A. The following answer gives the proper explanation.

According to Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

If you fix the distance between two objects but increase either one of their masses by a factor of 3, the force of gravitational attraction between them will increase by a factor of 3 as well.

This can be calculated as:

F = G * (m1 * m2) / d^2

where F is the gravitational force, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, and d is the distance between them.

If one of the masses is increased by a factor of 3, then the new force would be:

F' = G * (3m1 * m2) / d^2

Dividing F' by F, we get:

F' / F = (G * 3m1 * m2) / (G * m1 * m2)

F' / F = 3

Therefore, the force of gravitational attraction between the two objects increases by a factor of 3.

So, the answer is (a) the force increases by a factor of 3.

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Thick sheets of ice advanced over North America as far south as New York as recently as e. 18,000 to 22,000 years ago.

During the last Ice Age, known as the Pleistocene epoch, large parts of North America were covered by massive ice sheets. These ice sheets reached their maximum extent approximately 18,000 to 22,000 years ago. They advanced southward, reaching as far as present-day New York and even beyond.

This period of glaciation significantly shaped the landscape, leaving behind distinctive landforms such as moraines, drumlins, and glacial lakes. The retreat of these ice sheets marked the end of the Ice Age and had a profound impact on the environment and the ecosystems that developed in the post-glacial period.

Option e. 18,000 to 22,000 years ago is the correct answer.

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Organic sedimentary rock that originated as decaying plant matter is commonly known as coal. Coal is a fossil fuel that has been formed over millions of years from the compression and heating of plant matter.

It is one of the most abundant sources of energy in the world and has been used for centuries for heating, electricity generation, and industrial processes. Coal is formed from the remains of ancient plants that lived and died in swamps and other wetland environments. As the plants died, they fell into the water and were buried by sediment. Over time, the sediment compressed the plant matter, and heat and pressure caused the formation of coal. The type and quality of coal are determined by the amount of pressure, heat, and time that the plant matter has been exposed to. Coal is a valuable resource, but its extraction and use have significant environmental impacts. Mining can cause damage to ecosystems and communities, and burning coal releases greenhouse gases and other pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change and air pollution. Therefore, it is important to find alternative sources of energy and reduce our reliance on coal.

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On a global scale, insolation is the single most important direct influence on temperature. Insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface. This energy from the sun drives the planet's weather patterns and directly affects temperature.

The amount of insolation received at different locations on Earth varies due to factors such as latitude, time of year, and cloud cover. Areas near the equator receive more insolation than those near the poles, leading to warmer temperatures in lower latitudes. Seasonal changes also influence insolation levels, with more sunlight and higher temperatures in the summer months.

While other factors, such as wind patterns, air pressure, longitude, and altitude, also contribute to variations in temperature, insolation has the most significant direct impact. Wind patterns and air pressure can redistribute heat, but they do not create it. Longitude affects temperature by determining the time of day and, thus, the angle of the sun. Altitude also plays a role, as temperatures generally decrease with increasing elevation due to the lower air pressure and reduced ability to retain heat.

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Shortwave radiation is a form of energy that reaches the Earth's surface from the Sun. It is responsible for heating the planet's atmosphere and surface.

While there are several ways in which shortwave radiation can be absorbed and transformed, there is one statement that is false among the options given.

That is option B, which claims that the heating of the atmosphere by insolation is more effective than the heating of the atmosphere by land and water.

In reality, the opposite is true, as the Earth's surface is able to absorb and retain heat much more effectively than the atmosphere.

This means that the heating of land and water is a significant factor in the overall temperature of the planet, and that shortwave radiation is just one of the many sources of energy that contribute to this process.

So, the correct answer is B.

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The lowest recorded temperature in the Southern Hemisphere was measured in Vostok, Antarctica. The temperature was -128.6 degrees Fahrenheit (-89.2 degrees Celsius) and was recorded on July 21, 1983.

This measurement was taken by Soviet scientists working at the Vostok Station, which is located near the center of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.The extreme cold in Vostok is due to its location at high elevation and its distance from the coast, which results in very little atmospheric moisture. These factors combine to create a climate that is incredibly dry and cold.

While the temperature recorded in Vostok may seem almost unimaginable, it is important to remember that it represents the extremes of our planet's climate. Understanding the conditions in places like Vostok is essential for scientific research and can also help us better prepare for the impacts of climate change on our planet.

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The epicenter is approximately 751.8 kilometers away from the measuring point.

To determine the distance of the epicenter from the point where the time difference in wave arrival has measured, we can use the time difference between the arrival of P-wave and S-wave and the knowledge of their velocities.

Since P-waves travel faster than S-waves, we can assume that the P-wave arrived first, followed by the S-wave. The time difference between the two waves is 5 minutes and 38 seconds, or 338 seconds.

The speed of P-waves through the Earth's crust is approximately 6 kilometers per second, while the speed of S-waves is approximately 3.5 kilometers per second. Using the formula distance = velocity x time, we can calculate the distance of the epicenter from the measuring point as follows:

distance = velocity of P-wave x time difference / (1 / velocity of P-wave - 1 / velocity of S-wave)

distance = 6 km/s x 338 s / (1 / 6 km/s - 1 / 3.5 km/s)

distance = 2028 km / 0.0027 s/km

distance = 751.8 km

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False. Calcium carbonate sediment can also form through precipitation or biological processes such as the shells of marine organisms.

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks and minerals, such as limestone, chalk, and marble. Calcium carbonate is also present in the shells of many marine organisms, such as clams, oysters, and corals. It has a white, powdery appearance and is odorless and tasteless. Calcium carbonate is an important mineral that has a variety of uses. In the food and pharmaceutical industries, it is used as a dietary supplement and an antacid. It is also used in the production of cement, as a filler in plastics, and as a coating for paper. Additionally, calcium carbonate is used in the production of many household items, including toothpaste, baking powder, and paint. It is also an important component of the Earth's carbon cycle, playing a role in the formation of sedimentary rocks and the regulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

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When a river is in a steady state, it means that the balance between the supply of sediment and the amount of sediment that the river can carry is in a near equilibrium, the rver is referred to reservoir sedimentation.

In other words, the amount of sediment being carried by the river is roughly equal to the amount of sediment being deposited. This balance is important for the overall health and function of the river system.

When the supply of sediment exceeds the amount that the river can carry, the excess sediment can lead to erosion and degradation of the riverbed and surrounding habitat.

This can result in increased flooding, loss of habitat for aquatic and terrestrial species, and damage to infrastructure such as bridges and roads.

On the other hand, when the amount of sediment being carried by the river exceeds the amount of sediment being deposited, the excess sediment can accumulate in the riverbed, leading to reduced water flow, increased flooding, and changes in the river's channel and habitat.

Maintaining a steady state in a river requires careful management and monitoring of both sediment supply and river flow.

Human activities such as land use changes, dam construction, and mining can all impact sediment supply and river flow, and can lead to changes in the balance between sediment supply and sediment transport capacity.

Overall, understanding and managing the sediment balance of a river is crucial for maintaining the health and function of river ecosystems, and for reducing the risk of flooding and other impacts on human communities that depend on these important waterways.

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Answer:

C. terrigenous sediments

Explanation:

In oceanography, terrigenous sediments are those derived from the erosion of rocks on land; that is, they are derived from terrestrial (as opposed to marine) environments

Cold fronts travel faster than warm fronts. Option b is answer.

In meteorology, fronts are boundaries where air masses with different properties meet. Cold fronts occur when a cold air mass advances and replaces a warm air mass, while warm fronts occur when a warm air mass advances and replaces a cold air mass. When comparing the two types, cold fronts generally move faster than warm fronts.

This is because cold air is denser and tends to have a greater push, allowing it to advance more rapidly. Warm fronts, on the other hand, have a more gradual slope and typically move at a slower pace. The speed difference between the two fronts can result in different weather patterns and associated phenomena, such as thunderstorms and heavy precipitation along cold fronts.

Option b is answer.

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Temperature is the measure of the amount of heat in the atmosphere.

North Dakota and Washington are located in different parts of the United States, which have different weather patterns. North Dakota is located in the Great Plains, which has a continental climate characterized by hot summers and cold winters. In contrast, Washington is located in the Pacific Northwest, which has a maritime climate characterized by mild temperatures throughout the year. Therefore, North Dakota experiences greater temperature extremes than Washington due to its continental climate. During the summer months, North Dakota can experience temperatures above 100°F, while in the winter months, temperatures can drop below -20°F. In comparison, Washington rarely experiences temperatures above 90°F or below 20°F. Therefore, the greater temperature extremes in North Dakota can be attributed to its location and climate.

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The layer that lies directly below the emergent layer in the rainforest structure diagram is the canopy layer.

The rainforest is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, and it is divided into several distinct layers, each with its own unique set of characteristics and species. The layers of rainforest are:

Emergent layer: This is the highest layer of the rainforest, and it is made up of the tallest trees, which can grow up to 200 feet tall.

The emergent layer trees have adapted to living in bright sunlight and windy conditions, and they provide a habitat for many species of birds, insects, and other animals that are adapted to living in the upper levels.

Canopy layer: This is the second-highest layer of the rainforest, and it is characterized by a continuous layer of foliage formed by the upper parts of the majority of the trees in the forest.

The canopy layer is where most of the photosynthesis occurs in the rainforest, and it is the most diverse layer in terms of species.

The canopy layer provides a habitat for many species of birds, insects, mammals, and reptiles.

Understory layer: This is the layer below the canopy layer, and it is characterized by shorter trees and shrubs. The understory layer receives less sunlight than the canopy layer.

So the plants and animals that live there have adapted to low-light conditions. Many species of birds, insects, and mammals, including monkeys, live in the understory layer.

Forest floor layer: This is the bottom layer of the rainforest, and it is characterized by low light levels and a thick layer of decomposing plant matter.

The forest floor is home to many species of insects, reptiles, and mammals, including jaguars and tapirs.

Each layer of the rainforest is an important part of the ecosystem, and the plants and animals that live there are adapted to the unique conditions of their particular layer.

The layers also interact with each other, with nutrients and other resources flowing up and down between the layers.

Overall, the layers of the rainforest work together to create a complex and diverse ecosystem that is essential to the health of the planet.

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Most subaerial volcanoes on Earth occur in tectonic plate boundaries, specifically at divergent and convergent plate boundaries. Divergent plate boundaries occur when two plates move away from each other, creating a gap that magma can fill and solidify into new crust.

This process creates shield volcanoes, which are broad and gently sloping. Convergent plate boundaries occur when two plates collide, and one is subducted under the other. This process creates composite or stratovolcanoes, which are steep and cone-shaped. These volcanoes are formed by magma that rises from the subducted plate, melts, and rises to the surface. However, there are also some subaerial volcanoes that occur in intraplate settings, such as the Hawaiian Islands. These are formed by mantle plumes, which are columns of hot rock that rise from the Earth's mantle to the surface. This type of volcano creates shield volcanoes, which are broad and gently sloping. In summary, most subaerial volcanoes on Earth occur in tectonic plate boundary settings, with divergent and convergent plate boundaries being the most common. However, there are also some subaerial volcanoes that occur in intraplate settings, such as the Hawaiian Islands.

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The solar resource helps to generate electricity through the use of solar panels which is made up of photovoltaic (PV) cells that convert sunlight into direct current electricity.

The energy is gotten through solar panels which contain PV cells that convert sunlight into DC electricity. This electricity will then be convert into AC electricity using an inverter and used to power homes, businesses etc.

Our solar energy is a clean and renewable resource which makes it an attractive option for those looking to reduce their carbon footprint and decrease reliance on traditional fossil fuels.

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Answer:

The mesosphere is the layer within the atmosphere that protects Earth from incoming space debris.

Answer:

The magnetosphere is a high layer of the atmosphere. As the name suggests, Earth's magnetic field lies here, acting as a shield to the solar and cosmic particle radiation, and solar winds. Solar winds can damage and somehow 'blow away' the Earth's atmosphere, but the magnetosphere prevents that.

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The false statement is B. Magma actually moves upward towards the Earth's surface more slowly as it cools and becomes more viscous.

As magma cools, it becomes thicker and stickier, making it harder to move through the Earth's crust. The weight of overlying rock and the pressure it creates can help to push the magma upward, but the process is generally slow and can take thousands or even millions of years. Magma moves through cracks and narrow conduits in the Earth's crust, which can create volcanic vents and eventually lead to eruptions on the surface. The density of magma is typically higher than the surrounding rock, so it does not rise simply because it is less dense. Understanding the movement of magma is important for predicting volcanic activity and protecting communities that may be at risk. By studying the behavior of magma, scientists can better understand the complex processes that shape the Earth's surface and the potential hazards that come with them.

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The given statement "Altitude is the single most important influence on temperature variations." is true because the higher the altitude, the lower the temperature due to the decrease in air pressure and the thinning of the atmosphere.

This is because as altitude increases, there are fewer air molecules present to absorb and retain heat, resulting in a decrease in temperature. Therefore, mountains and other high-altitude areas tend to be cooler than their low-lying counterparts. Altitude also affects other factors that influence temperature, such as humidity, cloud cover, and precipitation. High-altitude areas tend to be drier and experience less precipitation, which can also contribute to lower temperatures.

Cloud cover can also have a significant impact on temperature, as clouds can act as a blanket, trapping heat and preventing it from escaping into the atmosphere. Overall, altitude plays a crucial role in determining temperature variations and should be considered when studying weather patterns and climate change.

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Small areas that are home to a large number of threatened species and an exceptional concentration of species found nowhere else on Earth are called "biodiversity hotspots".

Areas with high concentrations of biodiversity that are threatened by human activities including habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change are known as biodiversity hotspots. Two key requirements must be met for a region to be classified as a biodiversity hotspot:

Currently, 36 biodiversity hotspots have been found around the globe. These areas, which together only make up 2.4% of the land surface of the planet, are thought to be home to more than 50% of all plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species.

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"The stars can only be seen at night" is "Nocturnal".Due to the absence of sunlight during the night, stars are most frequently visible then. As a result, we are able to view the stars since their light has been able to get to us.

Day and night, stars can be seen in the sky. We cannot see the much fainter stars during the day because our star, the Sun, makes our sky so bright. The Starlight is seen at night when the sky is dark. This navigational device, referred to as a "nocturnal," was used to determine the time at night. One of the rare nighttime clocks ever discovered on a shipwreck, it resembled an astrolabe or a sundial.

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The correct answer is 290 DU. At 0 °C and 1 atm pressure, a layer of pure O3 that is 2.9 mm thick corresponds to 290 DU.

DU stands for Dobson Unit, which is a measure of the total amount of ozone in a vertical column of the Earth's atmosphere. One Dobson Unit represents a layer of ozone that would be 0.01 millimeters thick if it were compressed into a single layer at standard temperature and pressure. In the given scenario, a layer of pure O3 that is 2.9 mm thick would correspond to 290 DU because the thickness of the layer is 290 times the thickness of a single Dobson Unit (2.9 mm divided by 0.01 mm). This means that the layer contains 290 times the amount of ozone that would be present in a single Dobson Unit.

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Regions of the oceans can be defined by light availability in terms of their depth and the amount of light that can penetrate the water column.

Light is an essential factor for photosynthesis, which is the process by which primary producers such as phytoplankton and algae convert sunlight into organic matter.

These primary producers are the foundation of the oceanic food web, and they play a critical role in supporting the marine ecosystem.

In general, the ocean can be divided into three regions based on light availability:

The euphotic zone: This is the uppermost layer of the ocean where sunlight can penetrate and support photosynthesis.

The depth of the euphotic zone varies depending on water clarity, with clearer water allowing light to penetrate deeper.

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The Challenger expedition is considered one of the most important voyages in the history of oceanography. It was the first scientific expedition to systematically explore the deep sea, and it established many of the basic principles of modern oceanography.

During the expedition, the crew of the HMS Challenger sailed over 70,000 nautical miles and collected data on ocean currents, temperatures, salinity, and chemistry, as well as biological samples and sediment cores.

The single-beam echo sounders used on the Challenger were relatively primitive compared to modern multibeam systems. They consisted of a single transducer that emitted a sound wave that traveled down to the seafloor and was reflected back up to a receiver.

By measuring the time it took for the sound wave to make the round trip, the depth of the seafloor could be calculated. The resulting data were used to create the first global maps of the seafloor, which revealed the presence of vast undersea mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, and other previously unknown features.

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True. When magma (a pluton) intrudes into mafic country rock (such as basalt or gabbro), it can cause metamorphism of the rock.

The intense heat and pressure generated by the magma intrusion can cause recrystallization and reorientation of minerals in the country rock, resulting in the formation of metamorphic rocks. In the case of mafic country rock, the resulting metamorphic rock is usually a schist or gneiss. Schist is a metamorphic rock that typically forms from the recrystallization of mafic or felsic minerals under moderate to high temperatures and pressures, while gneiss is a metamorphic rock that typically forms from the recrystallization of mafic or felsic minerals under high temperatures and pressures, often associated with regional metamorphism.

Therefore, the statement is true. The intrusion of magma into mafic country rock can result in the formation of schist or gneiss depending on the temperature and pressure conditions.

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The climate most common above 70°N latitude is the Arctic climate, specifically the ET climate according to the Köppen climate classification system. This climate is characterized by extremely cold temperatures and a predominance of tundra vegetation.

In terms of countries, the Arctic climate is primarily found in the following countries that extend above the 70°N latitude:

Canada: The northern regions of Canada, including parts of the Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and the northernmost islands, experience the Arctic climate.

Russia: The Russian Arctic spans across several regions, including the Russian Far East, Siberia, and the Russian Arctic islands such as Franz Josef Land and Wrangel Island.

Greenland: As an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland is situated mostly within the Arctic region and is characterized by an Arctic climate.

Norway: The northernmost parts of Norway, including Svalbard, experience the Arctic climate.

Sweden and Finland: The northernmost regions of Sweden and Finland, including parts of Lapland, have an Arctic climate.

Alaska (United States): The northernmost regions of Alaska, such as the North Slope and Arctic Coastal Plain, fall within the Arctic climate zone.

It's important to note that while the Arctic climate is most common above 70°N latitude, there can be some variations within these regions due to local geography and topography. Additionally, some coastal areas may experience a modified version of the Arctic climate due to the influence of the nearby ocean or sea, which can moderate temperatures to some extent.

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The February 6, 2013 tsunami that struck the Solomon Islands was caused by a magnitude 8.0 earthquake that occurred in the Santa Cruz Islands region.

The earthquake was a thrust faulting event, which means that one tectonic plate was pushed underneath another, causing the sea floor to lift and displace water above it. This displacement of water generated a series of waves that propagated outward from the epicenter, eventually reaching the nearby Solomon Islands and causing significant damage.

The tsunami had a run-up height of up to 9 meters in some areas and resulted in the loss of dozens of lives and the displacement of thousands of people. The event was a reminder of the ongoing seismic hazards in the region and the importance of preparedness and early warning systems to minimize the impact of future earthquakes and tsunamis.

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A hybrid seed is created by crossbreeding two different varieties of a plant to produce a new, improved variety. Hybrid seeds are designed to have specific traits that are desired by farmers and consumers, such as disease resistance, higher yields, and better taste.

The introduction of hybrid seeds has had a significant impact on agriculture. It has led to increased crop yields and improved quality, which has helped to feed growing populations around the world. Hybrid seeds have also allowed farmers to reduce their use of pesticides and fertilizers, as the plants are naturally resistant to many pests and diseases. This has led to more sustainable and environmentally-friendly farming practices.

Additionally, hybrid seeds have helped to reduce the reliance on traditional open-pollinated seeds, which can be unpredictable in terms of yield and quality. This has allowed farmers to have greater control over their crops, and has helped to improve the economic viability of farming. Overall, the use of hybrid seeds has revolutionized agriculture and has played a critical role in meeting the food needs of the world's growing population.

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