Answer:
a. germination cowpea
Explanation:
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After a signal binds to a signal receptor, the next step is transduction. Why is the signal transduction step necessary?.
The more molecules that share the responsibility of conveying the signal to activate the effector, the faster and more efficiently the signal can propagate.
What is signal tranduction?
The transfer of chemical signals from an exterior to an interior of a cell is known as signal transduction, sometimes referred to as cell signaling. To achieve an adequate reaction, signals must be successfully transferred into cells. Receptors on the cell surface start this process.Transmission is maintained by either a series of biochemical adjustments made inside the cell or by altering the potential of the cell membrane caused by ions moving into or out of the cell.Learn more about the Signal tranduction with the help of the given link:
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A man spends his lifetime perfecting his painting skills. He has his daughter paint as well. he expects his grandson to be a world-famous painter. Whose theory is this man using?
Lamarck theory used by the man. According to this theory - Evolution is based on the principles that physical changes like greater development of organs or part through increased use could be transmitted to their offspring.
Theory is based on used and disused which is states that when certain organs become specially developed as a result of some environmental need, then that state of development is hereditary and passed from one generation to the other.
The aim of theory is to be boiled down to two broad claims such as - new species evolved from the previous species and acquired traits are inherited by offspring.
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The entire complex of concentric rings and cells that surround a single central canal is called a/an?
The entire complex of concentric rings and cells that surround a single central canal is called a/an osteon.
What is osteon?An osteoclast-rich tissue creates cylindrical vascular tunnels called osteons. They include cutting cone-shaped endosteum and pluripotent precursor cells. The cutting cone replaces the bone with osteoblast-rich tissue.The Haversian canal is surrounded by the osteon, the main structural component of compact (cortical) bone, which is made up of concentric bone layers termed lamellae.Osteons, also known as Haversian systems, are the building blocks of compact bone structure. Osteons are spherical organs made up of a mineral matrix, live osteocytes, and canaliculi that carry blood. They are positioned parallel to the bone's long axis. The structural component of compact bone are osteons. Also known as the Haversian system, osteons consist of overlapping cylinders of bone tissue called lamellae.
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How could an error during transcription affect the protein that is produced
Answer:
B. The protein would be made of the wrong nucleic (amino) acids.
Concepts:
Proteins are made up of different amnio acids. A good analogy is that a protein is like a train, and the individual cars are amnio-acids. Different combinations of cars, in different orders give different trains. In the same way, different amnio-acids, in different combinations give different kinds of proteins. Digestion, be it in animals or humans, results in the breakdown proteins into their amnio acid components. The intestine absorbs the individual amnio acids and the body ships these amnio acids to the cells. On top of that, some very special train cars are made inside the rail-yard, in the same way some very special amino acids can be made inside our cells. Cellular processes rearrange the amnio acids in new ways to make new proteins that are used by the animal or human for various bodily functions. So think of the cell as the railyard where new trains (proteins) are made but reassembling the cars (amnio-acids) into new and different combinations. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins are way more than just building muscle.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Imagine amino acids like lego blocks, you can assemble them into any shape and size. Amino acids are all identical, except for a single “side group”. This side group can be a single hydrogen, a complex carbon chain, some nitrogen groups, etc etc. These give the amino acids different properties, which gives the proteins a function. Any protein you eat will be broken down into its base amino acid components. It doesn’t matter if you eat chicken, peas, beef or mushrooms, you will still get the same amino acids, which your body can use to make any protein. The lego structure will be split into individual blocks, which your body will assemble into functional proteins. Eating “collagen protein” for smooth skin doesn’t work, Nor eating “special proteins” for some magic purpose. In fact, overeating one single source of protein will harm you. Some plants like wheat don’t have the same ratio of proteins as humans, so if you only ate wheat you would be short of some amino acids. It’s like disassembling a black lego boat and expecting to build a blue sphere - impossible.
What is transcription in biology?
Transcription is the process through which DNA is utilized as a template to create a complementary RNA strand in biology. This is the initial stage of protein synthesis or information transfer within a cell. DNA contains genetic information, which is subsequently transferred to RNA during transcription before being used to control protein synthesis during translation. Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA are the three forms of RNA that may be generated (rRNA). Pre-commencement, initiation, elongation, and termination are the four phases of transcription.
The RNA polymerase component initiates pre-initiation by attaching to a promoter region situated at the 5' end of a DNA strand. The DNA strand is denatured, which uncouples the two complimentary strands and allows the enzyme to access the template strand. The partner strand is the opposite strand. Promoter sequences on the DNA strand are critical for transcriptional start. Promoter sequences are particular sequences of the ribonucleotide bases that make up the DNA strand (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine), and the identification of some of these motifs, including TATAAT and TTGACA in prokaryotes and TATAAAA and GGCCAATCT in eukaryotes, has been identified. These are referred to as cis-acting elements. In eukaryotes, an extra transcription factor is required to assist RNA polymerase binding to the promoter region.
An undetected mistake in DNA transcription might result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein generated as a result of the transcription. If there is a change in the amino acid sequence, it might either be a detriment or a benefit to the organism.
Thank you,
Eddie
While on the beagle, darwin's observations suggested that ________ is (are) a better predictor of relationships among organisms than ________
While on the beagle, darwin's observations suggested that geographic proximitys (are) a better predictor of relationships among organisms than similarity of environment.
Darwin spent most of his time on land during the Beagle's five-year trip, gathering thousands of samples of fossils and living plants and animals. Many of Darwin's discoveries suggested that geographic proximity rather than environmental similarity is a better predictor of relationships between organisms.
For instance, the South American fossils Darwin discovered were also uniquely South American in that they resembled the living plants and animals of that continent, although clearly belonging to a different species from the ones that are alive today.
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Whether an organism will be genetically male or female is determined by __________.
Whether an organism will be genetically male or female is determined by the sperm.
What is a Sperm?When there is a smaller, male reproductive cell and a bigger, female reproductive cell, this type of sexual reproduction is known as anisogamous sexual reproduction. Sperm is the male reproductive cell or gamete.Red algae and some fungi create non-motile sperm cells known as spermatia, while animals produce sperm that are mobile and have a tail known as a flagellum.The pollen of flowering plants contains non-motile sperm, although other more basal plants, such as ferns and some gymnosperms, have motile sperm.Sperm cells are created during the spermatogenesis process, which occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes in amniotes (reptiles and mammals).They carry either X or Y chromosomes. X chromosome leads to the formation of a girl and Y leads to the formation of a boy.Several consecutive sperm cell precursors, beginning with spermatogonia, are produced during this process before they eventually develop into spermatocytes.Hence, sperms decide the gender of an organism.
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When a microbe that is not part of the normal biota enters the body, it is likely to first encounter which type of host defense?
When a microbe that is not part of the normal biota enters the body, it is likely to first encounter first line of host defense.
The term "normal microbiota" describes the microorganisms that are present in every human's conjunctiva, oral mucosa, skin's surface and deeper layers, saliva, and gastrointestinal tracts. The host employs a number of defences to defend against infection.
Mucus, which has a variety of normal microbiota that compete with and may even destroy invasive bacteria and virae, is one of the body's first lines of defence.Once a virus or bacteria penetrates the skin and mucosa, the host may experience changes that lessen the invader's power. A fever is one instance of such a shift.
Therefore, When a microbe that is not part of the normal biota enters the body, it is likely to first encounter first line of host defense.
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Name the four layers of the digestive tract beginning from the lumen of the digestive tract.
The four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep are the mucosa (adjacent to the lumen), submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
The digestive tract:The innermost tunic of the wall is known as the mucosa or mucous membrane layer. The digestive tract's lumen is lined with it. The mucosa is made up of epithelium, a layer of lamina propria, a loose layer of connective tissue, and the muscularis mucosa, a thin layer of smooth muscle. The mucosa in some areas produces folds that enhance its surface area. The mucosa's specific cells secrete hormones, digestive enzymes, and mucus. Other glands' ducts travel to the lumen through the mucosa.
The mucosa is surrounded by a substantial layer of loose connective tissue known as the submucosa. Blood arteries, lymphatic vessels, and neurons are also present in this stratum. This layer might contain glands.
An inner circular layer and an outside longitudinal layer make up the two layers of the smooth muscle that moves the digestive tract. The two muscle layers are separated by the myenteric plexus.
The adventitia is a connective tissue that makes up the digestive tract's outermost layer above the diaphragm. It is referred to as serosa below the diaphragm.
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If the atp synthase for an organism contains 15 c subunits, how many protons must flow through atp synthase per each new atp that is synthesized?.
Each time a new ATP is created, ATP synthase must process 5 protons.
Where is ATP synthase found and what does it do?ADP and phosphate are converted into ATP by the mitochondrial enzyme ATP synthase, which is located in the inner membrane. Protons are transported over a gradient created by electron transfer from the chemically positive to the negative side of the proton, which drives the flux of protons.How does photosynthesis's ATP synthase function?The light-driven production of ATP is catalyzed by the chloroplast ATP synthase, which is activated in the light and deactivated in the dark by redox-modulation via the thioredoxin system. This down-regulation is thought to be crucial for minimizing wasted ATP hydrolysis at night.What makes ATP synthase so crucial?All cellular functions are powered by ATP, which is constantly used by cells and required for production. About 100 ATP molecules can be produced by each ATP synthase every second.
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What molecule carries the message from the axon across the synaptic cleft to the muscle?
Answer:
Neurotransmitter molecules
Explanation:
(SEE BELOW FOR FULL EXPLANATION ON WHAT NEUROTRANSMITTERS ARE AND WHAT THEY DO)
Chemicals known as neurotransmitters are created by neurons and transferred across the synaptic gap (the empty space between neurons). These chemicals then connect with certain receptors on the surface of the second neuron, causing it to transmit the signal to the third neuron or to have other specific consequences. Keep in mind that synapses are not always between two neurons. They might be situated between a neuron and a gland or a neuron and a muscle.
When molecules have completed their task, they separate from the receptor and are typically metabolized by enzymes. The remainder is then taken up by the first neuron, where it is later utilized to produce new transmitters.
Different neurons generate various neurotransmitters (or other cells). It's noteworthy to note that numerous receptor types with various functions may often be activated by a single kind of neurotransmitter. Many of them also have an impact on the body's other systems and are not just related to the nervous system. Some of the most significant neurotransmitters are listed below:
Adrenaline transmits signals between the neurons that control movement. It also affects other organs, including the heartbeat, respiration, bowel movement, and stomach discharge. It also speeds up the heartbeat and breathing.
Acetylcholine is a chemical that transmits signals from neurons to skeletal muscles. Additionally, it quickens bowel movements, decreases the pulse, and boosts stomach discharge.
Serotonin transmits signals between brain neurons. Its side effects include migraine, nauseousness, and vomiting.
Dopamine's effects include controlling movement, motivation, nausea and vomiting during breastfeeding (sometimes, two substances have the same effect, because neurons, that are responsible for the effect have different types of receptrs, which in this case have the same effect, as they activate the same cells).
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid is abbreviated as GABA. This one is intriguing since it calms the nervous system and actually reduces cell activity when GABA receptors are activated. For instance, benzodiazepines are medications that work on the same receptors and serve the same purpose as GABA. Their effects—reduced stress, sedation, and sleep—are widely documented.
_________________________________________________
Noting that there are several additional significant neurotransmitters as well as numerous others with less obvious roles, I simply included the most fundamental details for the most fundamental molecules. I hope that makes the key point clearer to you.
Thank you,
Eddie
The more strongly men identify with stereotypical ideas about masculinity, the more likely they are to?
The more strongly men identify with stereotypical ideas about masculinity, the more likely they are to avoid preventive health care.
In hospital care, the care, comfort, and quality of life of a patient who is nearing the end of life are the main priorities. The phrase "comfort care" is frequently used to refer to hospital care; the two terms are interchangeable. The phrase describes the objective of care, which is to maintain the patient's "comfort" by controlling their pain and symptoms, reducing their worry, and enhancing their quality of life. In Western culture, characteristics like strength, courage, independence, leadership, and aggressiveness are traditionally considered as being associated with men. Social standards of masculinity are as follows: The concept of "masculinity" refers to the duties, actions, and characteristics that are deemed proper for boys and men in a certain society. Instead of being determined by biology, masculinity is produced and defined socially, historically, and politically.Learn more about stereotypical ideas here brainly.com/question/23317204
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The surface area of a cell increases proportionally to the radius?
The surface area of a cell is squared w.r.t its radius and not proportionally.
In general, all cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, must be tiny. Think about the dimensions of a normal cell. While not all cells have a sphere-like form, the majority do. A sphere's volume may be calculated using the formula 4πr3/3., whereas its surface area can be calculated using 4πr2. A cell's surface area grows as the square of its radius as the radius rises, yet its volume grows as the cube of its radius (much more rapidly).Thus, a cell's surface area to volume ratio drops as it grows in size. If the cell were in the form of a cube, the same reasoning would hold true.learn more about surface area here: https://brainly.com/question/6615047
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A toxic condition in which urea and othe waste products normally sereted in the urine are retained in the bloodstream is known as?
A toxic condition in which urea and other waste products normally secreted in the urine are retained in the bloodstream is known as uremia.
What is uremia?Uremia is a condition in which toxic wastes products that are normally removed from the body through the urine are retained in the body.
The waste products retained in the body include:
ureaions such as potassium and sodiumas well as other metabolic wastesUremia occurs when the kidneys are damaged and are not able to perform their function of removing waste products from the blood.
Uremia is a dangerous condition ad would result in death if left untreated.
The treatment options for uremia include:
blood dailysiskidney transplant.In conclusion, uremia occurs due to impaired kidney function.
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_______ fungi are those species that occur as either molds or yeast, depending on environmental conditions such as temperature and nutrient availability
Dimorphic fungi are those species that occur as either molds or yeast, depending on environmental conditions such as temperature and nutrient availability.
Dimorphic fungi are fungi that can exist in the form of both mold and yeast. This is usually brought about by change in temperature and the fungi are also described as thermally dimorphic fungi. An example is Talaromyces marneffei, a human pathogen that grows as a mold at room temperature, and as a yeast at human body temperature.
The term dimorphic is commonly used for fungi that can grow both as yeast and filamentous cells, however many of these dimorphic fungi actually can grow in more than these two forms. Dimorphic is thus often used as a general reference for fungi being able to switch between yeast and filamentous cells, but not necessary limiting more shapes.
Some diseases caused by this fungi are:
sporotrichosisblastomycosishistoplasmosiscoccidioidomycosisparacoccidioidomycosistalaromycosiscandidiasisSeveral species of dimorphic fungi are important pathogens of humans and other animals which includes :
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Which describes
heritable variation?
A. an individual must adapt a
change over it's lifetime
B. a variation that gets passed on
to offspring
C. a species must learn a new
behavior after a change occurs
Answer:
B. Es la respuesta correcta.
Explanation:
pues heredar es cuando una persona le da unas caracteristricas de ella a otra y q se transmite generacion x generacion.
What is the formula of hydroxyapatite that is present in the unit cell of the crystalline material?
Ca5(PO4)3OH is the Hydroxyapatite that is present in unit cell of crystalline material. It is a calcium phosphate mineral with the chemical formula. Chemical formula is Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Molecular weight is 1004.6 g/mol.
Its a naturally occurring mineral. Its also most investigated calcium phosphates(CaPs). Hydroxyapatite is major inorganic compound on hard tissue and found in bones, tooth enamel and tooth dentin. Inorganic portion of bone matrix which made by salt crystals .
It is composed of inorganic mineral that has a apatite lattice structure. It contains 39% calcium and 18% phosphorus result in a Ca/P mole ratio of 1.67. Hydroxyapatite molecules can group together to form microscopic clumps.
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Identify whether or not the different agents of evolutionary change could affect allele frequencies in a population?
Yes, the different frequencies of evolutionary change could affect allele frequency in a population.
What are the agents of evolutionary change?All populations are usual in a constant state of evolution. This means that all the species are continuously changing their genetic makeup over different generations. These changes can be subtle or they can be spontaneous.
If a population is not evolving, it is said to be in Hardy - Weinberg state. In this state, the allele frequency and the genetic makeup of the population will remain the same across generations.
The agents of evolutionary change defy the Hardy - Weinberg state. These are mutation, gene flow, non-random mating, natural selection and genetic drift.
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when evaluating a dorsal decubitus abdomen radiograph, the technologist notices that the iliac crests are superimposed, the pedicles of the lumbar vertebrae are superimposed, and the intervertebral joints are open. what, if any, mistake in positioning has been made
If when evaluating a dorsal decubitus abdomen radiograph, the technologist notices that the iliac crests are superimposed, the pedicles of the lumbar vertebrae are superimposed, and the intervertebral joints are open. No mistake in the positioning has been made.
What is dorsal decubitus abdomen radiograph?Dorsal decubitus abdomen radiograph can be defined as they type of x-ray conducted by sonographer when a patient is lying on the his or her back so as to check and diagnose if the patient as any of the following condition:
Abdominal traumaIatrogenic injury etc.Despite noticing that the iliac crests are superimposed, the pedicles of the lumbar vertebrae are superimposed, and the intervertebral joints are open No mistake has been made in the positioning.
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Example of how muscle tissue could be used in post-mortem analysis
Answer:
Skeletal muscle decomposes more slowly than internal organs and nerve tissue after death, but still more quickly than cartilage and bone.
Together, these factors make muscle tissue a good candidate for postmortem change study and well-suited for standard forensic lab examination.
Which of the following actions put New York City at risk for climate disruption?
They left too many trees and vegetation.
They used different pipes for flood water and sewage.
They created a grid system of roads without considering flood control.
They built marshlands and swamps and a central park.
The actions that put New York City at risk for climate disruption is that they created a grid system of roads without considering flood control (option C).
What is climate change?Climate change is the large-scale and long-term change in the Earth's climatic system produced by global warming i.e. anthropogenic climate change.
Climate change is a case of global concern and it is as a result of anthropogenic activities.
According to this question, New York City is at the risk of climate disruption because of the action they took. This action is that New York City created a grid system of roads without considering flood control.
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Damage to the ____________ will likely result in a personality change or disorder.
Answer:
Damage to the front association area will likely result in a personality change or disorder.
How might frontal lobe brain damage affect someone's behavior?
It depends on the side of the brain that was engaged and the dominant side of the individual. Having said that, the majority of frontal lobe injuries are caused by traumatic brain injury, with vehicle accidents being the main culprit. Traumatic brain injury often causes trauma to the entire brain, on both sides. If you want to witness a "pure" frontal lobe trauma, you should look at persons who have had a tumor in the frontal lobe or a stroke in the area (which is less common than in other places). Since the frontal lobe is often in charge of the brain's "executive" or higher processes, organizing, planning, making decisions, and impulse control would all be impaired.
What substance decreases during a reaction and can be used to measure the activity of an enzyme?
Answer:
substrate
Explanation:
I hope this help
The sudden loss of a ________ would necessarily cause the loss of most or all of a food web.
The sudden loss of a keystone species would necessarily cause the loss of most or all of a food web.
What is keystone species?The naturalist Robert T. Paine first proposed the idea of a "keystone species" in 1969. A keystone species is a species that, in relation to its abundance, has an outsized impact on its natural habitat.The intricate web of connections that makes up an ecosystem is held together by keystone species. Sea otters, wolves, elephants, and starfish are a few examples of keystone species.Many scientists mention three categories of keystone species: predators, ecosystem designers, and mutualists.A keystone species is frequently a dominating predator whose extinction often results in a decline in overall diversity as well as the explosion of a prey population. Other types of keystone species are coral or beavers, which profoundly alter the habitat around them and consequently have an impact on a vast number of other organisms.
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Typically, the oxidation of fat to release energy occurs after about ________ minutes of aerobic exercise
Typically, the oxidation of fat to release energy occurs after about 15 to 20 minutes of aerobic exercise.
How does oxidation of fat occurs?After about 15 to 20 minutes of aerobic exercise, fats are oxidized in the mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) , peroxisomes.Fat oxidation involves the breakdown of fatty acids.Mainly oxidation of fats is beta- oxidation which occurs in the mitochondria. It is named so because the bond between second (beta) and third carbon breaks.In the peroxisomes, alpha and beta oxidation of fats occur.While in the ER, omega oxidation occurs. It is an alternative to beta oxidation in some animals where omega carbon is oxidized.The rate of fat oxidation depends upon exercise duration, intensity, weight, nutrition.Oxidation of fats provides energy in low intensity exercises by contraction of muscles.Learn more about oxidation of fats here:
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The _____ is a rhythmic contraction and recoil of the arteries that results from the contraction of the heart and can be felt from the surface of the body.
The pulse is a rhythmic contraction and recoil of the arteries that results from heart contractions and can be felt from outside the heart.
What is a pulse?A pulse is the dilation of an artery at regular intervals caused due to the beating (contraction and relaxation) of the muscles of the heart.To feel a pulse, apply firm fingertip pressure to the skin at areas where the arteries travel near the skin's surface.The pulse is more clearly experienced when surrounding muscles are in a relaxed state.The measurement of pulse gives a measure of heart rate that is the number of times heart beats per minute.Learn more about pulse here:
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The carrier protein that transports absorbed iron through the blood is?
Answer:
Greater than 95% of iron in plasma is bound to its circulating transport protein transferrin, which delivers most of its iron to erythrocyte precursors—i.e. erythroid progenitor cells of the bone marrow that differentiate into mature RBCs
Explanation:
hope it will help you
Based on the punnett square, what is the phenotype of the offspring? hh hh tall short
The correct option is (C) Tall.
The offspring will have a Tall phenotype.
What is dominant and recessive trait?
The relationship between two genetic variants is referred to as dominant. Each gene has two alleles that an individual inherits from each parent. One allele of a gene, known as the dominant gene, will be expressed if the alleles are different. The impact of the other allele, known as the recessive one, is concealed. Even though the dominant trait only exists in one copy, it is always manifested when the connected allele is dominant. Only when both of the related alleles are recessive do recessive features manifest themselves.For instance, a tree with genotypes (Th) and (TT) will both be tall, while only a tree with genotype (hh) will be short.Learn more about the dominant and recessive trait with the help of the given link:
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I understand that the question you are looking for is "The Punnett square predicts the ratio of genotypes in the offspring, based on the genotypes of the parents. In this cross, tallness (H) is dominant to shortness (h). Based on the Punnett square, what is the phenotype of the offspring?
(a) HH
(b) Hh
(c) Tall
(d) Short"
The combining form referring to the bean-shaped organs that filter the blood and form urine is:_________
The combining form referring to the bean-shaped organs that filter the blood and form urine is kidneys.
What are the functions of the kidneys?The kidney's main jobs are to produce urine and clean the blood. Each kidney eliminates waste products and other compounds that the body does not need. The most crucial job of the kidney is to purify blood by eliminating waste.The body needs protein to grow and heal itself. However, as the body uses protein, waste products are produced.The accumulation and retention of these waste products is comparable to the body holding onto poison. Blood and hazardous waste are filtered by each kidney and then expelled in urine.Two crucial waste products are creatinine and urea.The “values” in blood tests reflect the function of the kidney. When both the kidneys fail, the value of creatinine and urea will be high in blood tests.Learn more about kidney here:
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Which of the following is NOT a defining characteristic of water?
Choose 1 answer:
Polarity
Cohesion
Low specific heat capacity
Surface Tension
Water is unique in its own way. In these characteristics, low specific heat capacity is not a defining characteristic of water.
The quantity of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of a substance is referred to as specific heat capacity. Water can absorb or release a lot of heat with little change in temperature because it has a relatively high specific heat capacity. This characteristic enables water to regulate heat effectively and maintain a consistent temperature in a variety of environments, including bodies of water.
Thus, water does not possess low specific heat capacity as a defining property.
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If the silicate to carbonate conversion process was to increase over a period of millions of years, how would this affect volcanism? why?
The silicate and carbonate geochemical cycle which is also known z inorganic carbon cycle.That describe the long-term transformation of silicon rocks to carbonate rocks by weather and sedimentation over a period of time.
This transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicate rocks by the process of metamorphosis and volcanism. Carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere during burial of weather minerals and which return to the atmosphere through volcanism.
After one millions of years , the silicate and carbonate cyclic process is controlling the earth's climate because it regulating the carbon-dioxide levels and global temperature. The rate of silicate weathering shows the climate is cool, causing CO2 to increase and warming the surface through the greenhouse effect.
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